The Incident At Bhopal Essays - Bhopal Disaster, Methyl Isocyanate

The Incident At Bhopal PURPOSE: To examine the events contributing to the tragedy at Bhopal, India and their repercussions and to draw conclusions based on these events. INTRODUCTION: What Happened at Bhopal? Reading newspaper and magazine articles written immediately following the events at Bhopal, it is apparent that it took some time for authorities to determine the causes of the industrial accident. Speculation seems to have run wild for a time following the accident. Drawing from later statistics and information seems to be a more reliable method of determining the most likely scenario. Where various alternate feasible possibilities have been presented, we will try to include the most likely. At approximately midnight on December 3, 1984, an unexpected chemical reaction took place in a Union Carbide of India Limited storage tank. The storage tank contained methyl isocyanate, (hereafter referred to as MIC) a toxic gas used in the process of a pesticide called Sevin.(1) As part of the distilling process there was an extremely high concentration of chloroform present. This caused corrosion of the tank. The tank being made of iron provided a catalyst for the reaction. A large amount of water was also introduced, approximately 120-240 gallons, which in combination with the chemical, generated enough heat to start the reaction. The runaway reaction released an uncontrollable amount of heat and this resulted in 30-40 tons of the gas being vaporized and spread over approximately 30 square miles, killing thousands of people and injuring hundreds of thousands.(2) The lack of information on MIC in 1984 made it a very toxic and difficult to control substance, according to Meryl H. Karol of the University of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Public Health. He says, ?Although nominally a liquid at room temperature, methyl isocyanate evaporates so quickly from an open container that it easily turns into a colorless, odorless highly flammable and reactive gas... I would hesitate having it in a laboratory.? He also quotes the OHSA standard for exposure to MIC during an eight-hour day as 0.02 parts per million, ?far lower than what many Bhopal residents were exposed to.?(3) THE HEALTH AFFECTS of exposure to MIC is disastrous. At low levels, MIC causes eyes to water and results in damage to the cornea. At higher concentrations, muscles constrict, and the bronchial passages have the equivalent of a severe asthma attack.(3) Most of the deaths in India were due to this. Dr. Jeffrey P. Koplan, Assistant Director of Public Health Practice at the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, who went to Bhopal to render assistance, said, ?There was edema, substantial destruction...of alveolar walls, ... a ulcerative bronchiolus...? among patients at the severely crowded hospitals.(4) Serious damage to the central nervous system after three to four weeks, including paralysis, and psychological problems have also been a result.(3) The long-term affects of MIC exposure are equally disastrous. According to the Indian Council of Medical Research, at least 50,000 people are still suffering and new chronic cases of asthma keep showing up as the population ages and 39% of the surrounding population have some form of severe respiratory impairment.(5) Most of them will suffer for the rest of their lives.(6) It is a conservative estimate that 5 people die every week as a result of the Bhopal accident.(7) Another consideration is that in a social class that maintains a living through physical labor, inability to perform results in starvation.(8) Affects on women were profound. Out of 198 women living within 10 miles of the facility, 100 had abnormal uterine bleeding.(1,5) Of the local women who were pregnant before the accident, 43% miscarried and 14% of the babies carried to term died within a month. Socially, these women are considered unwanted by potential husbands because reproductive disorders are so commonplace that they are seen as sterile.(5) It is unknown whether chromosomal damage will affect future generations.(8) TOTAL EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT are not yet known. Approximately 1,600 animals died on the first and second days after the incident. This was a terrible environmental health risk. Eventually this problem was solved by digging a giant one-acre mass grave. There was also damage to some vegetation, animal and fish species, but not to others. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research is studying this.(1) A VARIETY OF FAILURES were contributing factors in this lethal cloud of chemicals descending on the helpless, uninformed public. These failures include design failures, maintenance failures, operations failures, emergency response failures, communications failures, governmental failures and last but not least management failures. In 1982, a safety audit by the

Tips on How to Get French Scholarship From French Academic Palms

Tips on How to Get French Scholarship From French Academic PalmsHere is a sample essay to receive French scholarship from French academic palms. These tips may help you on your journey of searching for the right college or university that can give you a great chance to study French and complete your degree.The very first tip is to choose the right college or university that will give you an opportunity to study French language and culture. Start by doing a research on the college or university that you want to apply for. Go through their website and search for other students who have been to the college or university. This way, you will know how famous they are and will be able to assess whether they are the right fit for you.The next thing that you have to do is write an essay that will cover the main area of your degree. The subject line of your paper will be of great importance here. Since you are applying for a scholarship, you need to make sure that your subject of interest is r elated to your desired major. If not, your application might be rejected.The next tip on how to get French scholarship from French academic palms is to first write a short essay. Include your personal information as well as your degree, and your skills that you have acquired. These things will make your essay more interesting it will grab the attention of the reader.The third and the most important element in writing an essay is to follow your topic carefully. If your topic is something related to French language and culture, then write about your interest and experience. If you are applying for a scholarship, you have to use a different topic. However, if you are applying for a certain class or program, you may be required to use the same topic.The fourth tip on how to get a scholarship for studying French language and culture is to ensure that your English language is very good. You need to look at the basics that all native speakers use to describe the same thing. This will also help you when you are talking to a native speaker.The fifth and the final tip on how to get a scholarship for studying French language and culture is to include your passion for French language and culture. You need to speak French in every part of your life, especially when you are in school or any situation where you need to communicate with a native speaker. Make sure that you have passion for the language, this will also help you complete your degree.These are just some of the sample essays that can be used to receive French academic palms. Always remember that it is not just about having the best idea in writing a perfect essay, but it is also how you plan your content that will make the difference.

How to Use Extra Credit Effectively

How to Use Extra Credit Effectively The use of extra credit can be an effective teaching and learning tool in any content area classroom, but only if the extra credit is used in the correct manner. Generally, extra credit is offered to those students who want to bring up a GPA. Poor performance on a heavily weighted test or a paper or a project may have dropped a students overall grade. The opportunity for extra credit may be a motivational tool or a way to correct a misjudgment or miscommunication.  However,  if used incorrectly or inequitably, extra credit can also be a point of contention and a headache for the teacher.  Therefore, a teacher should take time to look at an offer for extra credit critically and consider the implications it may have for grading and assessment.   Pros of Using Extra Credit An extra credit assignment may provide students with an incentive to go above and beyond the class material. If it is used to enhance lessons, the offer for extra credit can help deepen the learning for students. It can also help struggling students by providing them with additional learning opportunities while allowing them a means to increase their grade. The extra credit may mirror the original assignment, be an alternative test, paper or project. There may be a section of an assessment that can be taken again or the student may suggest an alternative assignment.   Extra credit may also be in the form of revision. The process of revision, especially in writing assignments, can be used as a way to teach students to reflect on their progress and abilities in writing and take steps to strengthen it. Revision may serve to establish conferences to receive highly beneficial one-on-one attention. Rather than design new extra credit opportunities, a teacher should consider how he or she can reinforce the skills to improve student performance on a previously graded assignment.   Another method for extra credit is to give students a bonus question(s) on a quiz or test. There may be an option to answer an additional essay question or solve an additional word problem.   If extra credit is allowed, teachers may adopt the kinds of the assignments that are voluntary extra credit must still be assessed just as rigorously as the assessments for regular coursework. Perhaps there are extra credit opportunities that allow students to try extended activities such as inquiry projects based on  questions, problems, or scenarios. Students may choose to volunteer in the school community or in the community at large. By allowing the student the opportunity to choose how they will earn extra credit points could be a way to give them control over their academic achievement. After checking school policy, if you wish to offer extra credit in your class, you will need to make sure of the following: Do connect your extra credit to other lessons in class or to classroom pertinent current events.Do provide the same extra credit opportunities to all students.Do consider your grading time when assigning extra credit.Do make extra credit assignments interesting and pertinent for students.Do tell your students when you assign extra credit how much it will be worth and how you will grade it.Do make sure that you are not outweighing your required assignments with points for extra credit.Do set a clear deadline for when extra credit is due. Cons of Using Extra Credit On the other hand, too many opportunities for extra credit in a course could result in an  imbalance in grading. Extra credit assignments could outweigh the required assignments, and the result could mean that a student would pass a course without meeting all the standards.  Extra credit that is graded for a â€Å"completion† grade can skew an overall grade. In the same vein, some educators believe that extra credit reduces the importance of curriculum assessments by providing students with a way to circumvent the curriculum. These students could avoid  requirements by still have the ability to increase their grade. Moreover, an extra credit assignment could boost a GPA, but obscure a students actual academic ability. There are also some schools that have a no extra credit rule in their policy handbook. There are some districts that want to eliminate the extra work a teacher has to do after assigning extra credit. Some general rules to consider are: Do not create extra credit assignments that are unconnected to your curriculum or standards.Do not grade each students extra credit using different standards.Do not create so much extra credit that students are able to pass without completing the required work.Do not make spur of the moment extra credit opportunities that are not equally available to all students.Do not allow busy work like copying from a book to be extra creditDo not allow students to turn in late extra credit as this is just an accounting nightmare.Do not create extra credit assignments that the educational value is not equivalent to the student or teacher effort involved.

Two Weeks Notice Email Examples of How to Write the Perfect One

Two Weeks Notice Email Examples of How to Write the Perfect One So you’re moving on and have to send in your two week’s notice email.   The panic has inevitably set in. First of all, know that it’s much preferable to tell your boss in person, then provide your employer with a formal letter of resignation. If you have to quit your job in a hurry and you’re too close to two weeks to write a formal letter, you may be stuck sending a two weeks’ notice email. Giving two weeks, after all, is an important and respectful way to gracefully exit a job. It’s standard practice- the least you can do! Keep in mind that some companies may ask you to leave immediately upon receipt of your letter, but the offer of the extra time to help ease the transition is almost always the right move. If you find yourself in the scenario of having to write a resignation email, here are a few tips, as well as a resignation letter template.1. Name the date.Explicitly state the date when you will leave the company. This gives your boss a clear sense of your timeline and establishes a paper trial.2. Keep it concise.There is no need to go into detail. Convey that you are resigning and when your last day will be. Stifle urges to overshare about your reasons or your feelings and all the rest.3. Offer to help.It’s never a bad idea to offer to be extra helpful in your final two weeks- i.e. helping to train your replacement or shoring up unfinished projects.4. Ask HR questions.You should CC HR on your email. Now’s your chance to ask any questions about benefits or your final paycheck. You should include where to send your last paycheck, and perhaps a forwarding email address for future contact.5. Check it twice.There’s absolutely no shame in thoroughly proofing your email multiple times. Double check everything- spelling, dates, names, grammar. Make it unimpeachable. A classy exit.Still confused? Here is a template you can use as a guide:Subject: Two Weeks NoticeDear [Supervisor’s Name],This letter is to formally give notice that I will be resigning from my position as [Your job] at [Company], effective in two weeks. My last day of work will be [Date two weeks from when you send].I have accepted a position with another company that will further my growth and career development, but I remain grateful to everyone at [Company]. I have learned so much and gained such great experience being part of your team and I appreciate the time and attention you have given me during my time here.During the next two weeks, I am more than willing to help make the transition as smooth as possible. Please let me know how best I can help, whether that be helping to recruit my replacement, or assisting in their training.Again, it has been a pleasure working with you. I wish you, and everyone at [Company] continued success in the future.Sincerely,[Your name]Your Namename@personalemail.comCell Number

Censorship in a Liberal Society Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Censorship in a Liberal Society - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that censorship is the expression or writing repression, which is considered coarse, lewd and excessively controversial. All over history, various societies practiced multiple forms of suppression or censorship in the community beliefs and practices that were responsible for individual molding. Society censorship is the oppression or restriction of mass communication and expression that is labeled offensive, disastrous and objectionable. Various forms of community censorship occur such as moral, religious, public and socio-political. Yet, censorship is a controversial act within largely organized communities and therefore, it is crucial for people to analyze the limitations, advantages, and effects of censorship in the society. The discussion will investigate society censorship as a violation of people’s rights and justice.  Society censorship in the modern perspective is linked with enormous, complex metropolitan societies with an increased level of federal authority and technical strategies of efficiently reaching the public domain. It includes the determination of things that can or cannot (culturally and legally) be expressed or communicated to the wider public in the light of a certain socio-political, spiritual, artistic and traditional standards, (Roleff 52). Society censorship may entail suppressing, revising or altering existing information and preventing the creation of such information. In order to withhold or prevent the material from the wider audience, offensive, indecent and harmful content to the public welfare is repressed or controlled. This act infringes people’s freedom to receive and access vital information concerning their society and lives. Any societal or cultural level of the rule, whether customary or codified, prohibiting self-expression (such as nudity, hairdos, facial expression, figure or body beautification, use of language) or repression and surveillance of individual c ommunication ( through email or mobile phone) is expressed as a censorship form. This act compromises the liberty and right to free expression and infringes personal privacy, (Hyland and Neil 13).

Extra credit Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Extra credit - Assignment Example This passage provides a picture of the reading plan by stating that it consists of previewing, reading, marking and reviewing. These steps are fundamental for a reader as they provide easier approach to the reading material by identification of the primary ideas of the book and determining how long one can to complete reading it (Textbook Reading Resource, 4). However, this passage accounts for the necessity of reading in a quiet and comfortable place. The reading should be in slots such as 20 pages in 50minutes. For the case of mapping, the reader can do it by applying two approaches namely the fishbone and branching. These two methods simplify complex maps into simpler material to comprehend. In addition, three alternatives to mapping can be applied in a bid to understand the mapping trends. They include outlines, flashcards and listing ort category (Textbook Reading Resource, 13). On equal measure, this passage suggests an easier way to read a textbook. The SQ3R is easier an efficient way for one to read and comprehend something complex to remember. The method involves reading the words not ideas or concepts (Textbook Reading Resource, 20). In conclusion, their passage provides an easy reading plan, which will make the readers read procedurally and be able to understand the contents. In addition, the SQ3R makes reading simpler and fascinating when reading complex materials. For the case of mapping, fishbone and branching approaches are fundamental in interpret ting the map

Importance of Teaching Listening Skills

Importance of Teaching Listening Skills Listening comprehension is an important language skill to develop. Language learners want to understand target language (L2) speakers and they want to be able to access the rich variety of aural and visual L2 texts available via network-based multimedia. Furthermore, listening comprehension is at the heart of L2 learning and the development of L2 listening skills has demonstrated a beneficial impact on the development of other skills (e.g. Dunkel 1991; Rost 2002). Therefore, it is important to develop L2 listening competence; yet, in spite of its importance, L2 learners are rarely taught how to listen effectively (e.g. Mendelsohn 2001, 2006; Berne 2004; LeLoup Pontiero 2007). In addition, listening is an essential skill which develops faster than speaking and often affects the development of reading and writing abilities in learning a new language (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992; Oxford, 1993). According to them, the main reason is that one receives input through listening to instructions or explanations prior to responding orally or in writing. Listening is not an easy skill to acquire because it requires listeners to make meaning from the oral input by drawing upon their background knowledge of the world and of the second language (Byrnes, 1984; Nagle Sanders, 1986; Young, 1997) and produce information in their long term memory and make their own interpretations of the spoken passages (Murphy, 1985; Mendelsohn, 1994; Young, 1997). In other words, listeners need to be active processors of information (Young, 1997). Meanwhile, Vandergrift (1996, 1997, and 2003) asserts that listening is a complex, active process of interpretation in which listeners try to su it what they hear with their prior knowledge. According to Richards (1983), this process is more complex for second language learners who have limited memory capacity of the target language. Therefore, it is necessary for them to utilize various listening strategies. As most English teachers Iran believe, although we have learned a lot about the nature of listening and the role of listening in communication, L2 listening has been considered to be the least researched of all four language skills. This may be due to its implicit nature, the ephemeral nature of the acoustic input and the difficulty in accessing the processes. In order to teach L2 listening more effectively, teachers need a richer understanding of the listening process. Research into L2 listening is important because a better understanding of the process will inform pedagogy. According to Vandergrift (2007), students who learn to control their listening processes can enhance their comprehension; This, in turn, affects the development of other skills and overall success in L2 learning. 1.2. Statement of Problem Listening comprehension may seem relatively straightforward to native language (L1) speakers but it is often a source of frustration for second and foreign language (L2) learners (e.g., Graham, 2006). Further, little attention has been focused on systematic practice in L2 listening (see DeKeyser, 2007) i.e.; on the integrated instruction of a sequential repertoire of strategies to help L2 learners develop comprehension skills for real-life listening (Berne, 2004; Mendelsohn, 1994; Vandergrift, 2004). A review on recent research on second or foreign listening instruction suggested a need for an analysis of the effectiveness of metacognitive instruction for developing L2 listening comprehension. Current approaches for effective L2 listening are toward real-life authentic ample-input listening with more of top-down approaches and process instruction. Most of the studies, support real-life listening with authentic materials (Buck, 2002; Goh, 2008; Richards, 2005; Vandergrift, 2007; Veenman et a1., 2006). Top-down approaches have drawn more recent favors than bottom-up approaches (Goh, 2008; Rost, 2002; Vandergrift, 2004). Process listening was favored to product listening (Vandergrift, 2004; Field, 2003; Buck, 1995; Krashen, 2008). Interest was also indicated in raising student awareness of the listening process (Vandergrift, 1999; Mendelsohn, as cited in Vandergrift, 2004). Among the approaches to L2 listening, metacognitive instruction for L2 listening was noted to be a most recent trend (Annevirta et al., 2007; Beasley et al., 2008; Chen, 2007; Derwing, 2008; Field, 2008; Goh, 2008; Graham et al., 2008; Lee Oxford, 2008; Vandergrift, 2007; Veenman et al., 2006; Zohar Peled, 2008). In general, comprehension historically has received only minimal treatment in the teaching of English as a Second Language (ESL), but it is, in fact, one of the most important skills a second language (L2) learner must master to succeed in academic studies (Jung, 2003, Thompson Rubin, 1996). For learners to become proficient in listening comprehension, they must receive comprehensible input (Vandergrift, 1997, p. 495) as well as have ample opportunity to practice using, or producing, the language. In second language acquisition, listening comprehension used to be considered a passive activity; thus, it did not merit researchers attention (Jung, 2003; Thompson Rubin, 1996; Vandergrift, 2004). It had been assumed that a learners ability to comprehend spoken language would develop entirely on its own in an inductive way through repetition and imitation. As recently as the 1970s there were no textbooks devoted to teaching the skill of listening in a second language. It was assumed that the ability to comprehend spoken language would automatically improve because learners with exposure to the oral discourse would learn through practice. Listening texts are a relatively recent addition to the ESL or ESL curricula; the focus of earlier second or foreign language learning texts which included a focus on listening comprehension was primarily on testing students ability to listen to oral discourse and then answer comprehension questions based upon the information (Carrier, 2003; Field, 1998). Today, however, a growing body of research indicates that the focus has shifted to actively and intentionally teaching strategies for learning how to process, comprehend, and respond to spoken language with greater facility, competence, and confidence (Rost, 2007). Despite, recognizing the importance of listening strategies for the development of foreign language proficiency, very limited studies have been performed in Iran concerning the strategies employed by Iranian EFL learners in relation to listening proficiency levels. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine how strategies training may benefit L2 learners in their development of listening comprehension. 1.3. Significance of the Study The current study addresses the need for further research in the area of systematic teaching of listening strategies. Accoding to Carrier (2003), for L2 learners, the ability to use strategies effectively in their academic listening is crucial (Carrier, 2003). He believed that learners need to be able to actively and selectively choose the strategies most applicable for a given listening situation and evaluate strategy effectiveness in their everyday learning tasks. As Carrier (ibid) indicated in her study, students can benefit from instruction in strategies for academic listening in a variety of settings and incorporating many types of media. This study adds to the growing body of research of how adult EFL students pursuing academic study may benefit from explicit, systematic teaching of listening strategies. Doing this research contributes a method to introduce and model L2 listening strategies. Results of the study provide insight into participants self-perceptions of their use of listening strategies both before and after systematic classroom instruction. 1.4. Research Questions The following research questions formed the basis of the study: 1. Does explicit listening comprehension strategy training based on CALLA instructional model increase Iranian EFL learners listening comprehension 2. What metacognitive listening strategies, based on Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ), do Iranian EFL learners report before and after metacognitive training program? 1.5. Research Hypotheses Based on the above questions, the following hypotheses will be estimated: 1. Explicit listening comprehension strategy training based on CALLA instructional model cannot play any role in increasing Iranian EFL learners listening comprehension. 2. There is no significant difference in using metacognitive listening strategies, based on Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) by Iranian EFL learners before and after metacognitive training program. 1.6. Limitations of the Study One limitation of this study relates to the selection of participants. It was anticipated that the body of participants was likely to be of predominantly one language and cultural background. While this could provide insights into the strategy use of that particular language group, it might preclude broader multicultural generalizations of the study. In addition, it was impossible to randomize the selection of participants because of the structure of the research. The study needed to be conducted as a component of regularly scheduled EFL coursework. Limited randomization was provided in the anonymity of participant responses on the research instrument questionnaires as well as with proficiency leveling. Participants prior exposure to listening strategies instruction or to the manner in which such instruction may have taken place is another area that was impossible to determine. Indeed, students may consciously or unconsciously use strategies transferred from their learning and listening experiences in their first language. In addition, instructors may offer strategies instruction without intentionally planning to do so. If students have friends who are native speakers of English, spend much time watching American movies or listening to news broadcasts, or in other ways have a lot of exposure to English outside of class time, they may have adopted a variety of listening strategies that their classmates who do not engage in such activities have not. 1.7. Definition of Key Terms The following terms are used throughout this study and are defined as related to use in this research. Listening: an active process in which listeners select and interpret information that comes from auditory and visual clues in order to define what is going on and what the speakers are trying to express (Thompson Rubin, 1996, p. 331). For this study, the focus is on listening for academic purposes. That might include listening during academic lectures, seminars, group work, or any other aural discourse that is likely to occur in an academic classroom setting. Metacognition: Metacognition refers to the learners knowledge of whatever strategies s/he might use for specific tasks and under what conditions those strategies will be most effective (Pintrich, 2002). Strategy training: teaching explicitly how, when, and why to apply language learning and language use strategies to enhance students efforts to reach language program goals (Carrell, 1996; Cohen, 1998; Ellis Sinclair, 1989, as cited in Chen, 2005, p. 5). CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 2.1. Overview This chapter presents a brief historical timeline of the teaching of listening comprehension in EFL and ESL context. Of note is that listening research and teaching has a relatively short history as compared to that of reading, writing, grammar, and speaking. Certainly, the process of learning how to listen in a second language shares features with learning to listen in ones mother tongue; however, some features are different. The literature provides insight into these similarities and differences. Within this section, top-down and bottom-up processing as they function in the L2 listening process are explained, as is the interaction between the two processes. Finally, learning strategies, in particular, those used in the L2 listening process are presented. In most of the research accomplished to date, strategies have been classified in a descriptive manner. Researchers agree to the dearth of studies showing what types of intervention-or instruction-of listening strategies will help L 2 students to improve their listening comprehension. It is to this end that the current study was undertaken. 2.2. History of Teaching Listening Comprehension Though one of the most important but also most difficult skills a second language (L2) learner must master to succeed in academic studies, L2 listening comprehension has not received the research attention it deserves (Jung, 2003, Thompson Rubin, 1996). Though the focus in teaching today is on presenting listening as an active receptive skill which needs special attention in language study (Morley, 2001, p. 72.), listening was traditionally considered to be a passive skill, unlike speaking or grammar (Vandergrift, 2004). Even as recently as the 1970s there were no textbooks devoted to teaching the skill of listening in a second language. One hundred and fifty years ago, it was thought that speaking and writing in a second language were productive, or active skills, while listening and reading were receptive, and thus passive. In some of the earliest recorded language classes, listening was not taught at all. In one of the earliest of the language teaching approaches, Grammar Translation (Felder Enriquez, 1995; Flowerdew, Miller, 2005), teaching was conducted in the learners native tongue, and only the grammar, sentence structure and vocabulary of the foreign language, generally Greek or Latin, were taught so that learners could translate texts. The first of the language teaching methods that touched upon the importance of listening comprehension is known as the Direct Approach (Felder Enriquez, 1995), in which learners were immersed in the target language, with the L2 being the language of instruction (Flowerdew Miller, 2005). Taught inductively, learners mastered the grammar by creating rules based on their ever-growing experience with the language. Correctness in all aspects of the language was emphasized. In the Direct Approach, by necessity, listening comprehension played a major role. However, the development of listening comprehension was not actively taught; it was assumed that learners would pick up this skill in an inductive way, through repetition and use. Certainly, with its focus on inductive learning, no listening strategies were actively taught in the Direct Approach. Although listening comprehension was a component of the Grammar Approach also, students were constantly tested on their listening ability only as it related to their ability to simultaneously read and listen to a recorded piece of discourse and make sense of the grammatical and lexical rules of the language. One major drawback of this method was that the classroom activities did not relate in any meaningful way to everyday listening activities outside of the classroom (Flowerdew Miller, 2005). Students using this method were called upon to fill in missing words, a task they could easily perform without having any idea of the actual meaning of the discourse. The Audiolingual Approach (Larsen-Freeman, 2000), which became popular in the 1960s and 1970s, required the listener to recognize and practice utterances and then create similar utterances patterned after the ones they had heard in a dialogue. It was during this time and with this approach to teaching languages that the audio-cassette language labs became widely used (Ross, 2003). The language lab focus was based on drill and practice, requiring much repetition and error correction with the goal of instilling in students correct patterns of discourse. Developing listening comprehension strategies, again, was not the focus of this approach; rather listening skill was taught only as it pertained to the manipulation of newly learned grammatical and lexical structures. An unfortunate result was that in their learning process, students interacted much more with machines than with other humans. Then focus shifted toward student interaction in authentic language situations so that students could have exposure to comprehensible input as well as practice using the target language in real life situations. While cassette language laboratories are still in use today, many of these have been replaced or supplemented with computer laboratories and digital language laboratories. Emphasis on authentic tasks and projects, particularly those using the Internet, has become highly regarded (Ross, 2004). In the 1980s and 1990s, the Communicative Approach (Oxford et al., 1989)-one in which error was tolerated, provided the learners intended message could be conveyed and understoodbecame popular. The Communicative Approach, in which the focus is on use of authentic language, places the learner in a real exchange of meaning; the learner must process input and produce output such that each participant can understand the other. Once again, we see that listening strategies are assumed but not actively taught. Within this method, two schools developedthose who embrace the Cognitive Approach (Ellis, 1999) and those who embrace the Sociocognitive Approach (Warschauer Meskill, 2000). Another approach which came into existance was Cognitive Approach, the first of the two schools, which focuses on the view that all language learning is a unique psycholinguistic process (Warschauer Meskill, 2000, p. 3). Learners are said to have a built-in cognitive ability to interact with and communicate in language that is both meaningful and comprehensible to them and construct their own meaning. Making errors is seen as a positive learning process through which learners construct the rules of the target language based upon input/output. Technologies that support this learning theory/style include text-reconstruction software, concordancing software, telecommunications, and multimedia simulation software (p. 4). Teachers can easily manipulate authentic text to create meaningful exercises (cloze-type), and students can use all sorts of software and Internet access to discover computer microworlds that, at their best, simulate an immersion or a linguistic bath environment (p. 5). They can experience the target language by conducting searches, interacting with and manipulating their findings. In many cases, students need not actually interact with other humans at all. The other school within the Communicative Approach embraces Sociocognitive Approaches. This school of thought contends that learners benefit greatly from interaction with people. Students need to interact with other humans in authentic language situations so that they can have comprehensible input as well as exposure and practice in the types of speech acts in real life outside the classroom. Authentic tasks and projects, particularly those utilizing the Internet, are highly regarded in this approach. Teaching methods that exploit computer-assisted discussion have become accepted. We see synchronous and asynchronous chat becoming a major component of language learning. While this medium is seen as somewhat artificial, it is still said to give students authentic practice in extended discourse and to provide an extra layer of language practice for students, one that is democratic. Students who are hesitant to use oral language in the classroom have greater opportunity to use language w ithout fear of making mistakes and thus losing face. The result can be class discussions that are both highly democratic and collaborative. Next in the progression of accepted language teaching approaches is one known as the Task-Based Approach (Brown, 1987; Bruton, 2005). This approach requires the learner to listen and, based on the input, complete some sort of task, perhaps note-taking or filling in a chart or form. The tasks tend to be oriented to real-world needs of the learner but are frequently based upon discourse (lectures or passages) that is at least partially contrived. While not exactly authentic, these types of activities provide practice in completing the types of tasks students might be called upon to use in real life, such as noting information or completing forms. In current language learning approaches, we have the Learner-Strategy Approach (Floweredew Miller, 2005; Mendelsohn, 1994). This approach accounts for learners needs to initiate and recognize their own listening strategies what works for each individual learner. The Learner-Strategy approach examines listening comprehension from the perspective of individual learners and their independent learning with activities created to help learners discover what particular strategy works for them, including foci on schema activation, authentic tasks, presentation of many types of activities in many different contexts, and total interaction with the task. It is in this approach that metacognitive realization plays a significant role. Metacognition refers to the learners knowledge of whatever strategies s/he might use for specific tasks and under what conditions those strategies will be most effective (Pintrich, 2002). Pintrich pointed out that metacognition refers to knowledge of strategies; h aving the knowledge doesnt necessarily mean that the learner actually uses the strategies. It is important, however, for learners to identify which of their own listening strategies produce success, and it is helpful for them to share their strategies. Not only does the sharing help them to activate schemata and to recognize how the strategy works for them, their sharing may also serve to activate other learners schemata and be instructive for fellow learners. Both learner and fellow students become more autonomous and develop more control over their own learning, the goal of this particular approach. The more aware learners are of the learning process, more specifically, their own learning process, the greater the chance they can influence conscious learning (Nakatani, 2005, p. 77) and enhance their own strategic competence. According to Osada (2002), with the development of research, new theories, and development of second language curriculum, researchers interest in listening comprehension has grown. The 1990s showed a far greater interest in this skill than had previously been realized. Today, it is a widely accepted belief (Flowerdew Miller, 2005; Jung, 2003; Savignon, 2001; Wilson, 2003) that all skills, certainly including listening comprehension, require active negotiation with the language. Savignon (2001) likened the collaborative process involved in oral/aural communication to the game of football. The different strategies players use and the different moves they make as they avoid, block, or tackle the opposing teams players are similar to the strategies language learners use to negotiate meaning with their interlocutors in the new language. Not only do learners need to know the sound system, grammar, and syntax of the new language, but they also need to understand the pragmatic, or discourse meanings of the language. A final learning approach that is worth mentioning here is the Integrated Approach (Flowerdew Miller, 2005). Teachers of today recognize readily the need to actively teach strategies for developing accuracy in listening comprehension. The goal is to make students able to listen for and identify main ideas as well as details, to develop their critical listening and thinking skills, and to enable them to manipulate the language and show that they comprehend and can use what they have heard. An expected outcome is for students to be able to use heard information and present it in an intelligent and intelligible way. In the Integrated Approach, we see complementary strategies at play as students use aspects of the various approaches to language teaching and learning to comprehend, manipulate, and produce language in authentic, meaningful language tasks. 2.3. Different perspectives toward listening 2.3.1. Listening as Negotiation of Meaning That most peoples daily experiences are often not linked to reading and writing- but to situations where the spoken word is the dominant medium has already been noted in the context of first language (LI) listening (see, for example, Bohlken, 1999; Frest, 1999; Furnis, 2004). In academic contexts, for example, research on LI listening has shown that listening comprises more than 50% of college students total average communication day followed by reading (17%), speaking (16%) and writing (11%) (Emanuel et al, 2008). With the significant role that listening plays in our lives, therefore, it would be worthwhile to examine what facilitates and/or hinders listening. Changes in listening behavior have been associated with different factors including purpose for listening (Wolvin Coakley, 1996), types of interaction possible or required in a listening situation (Rost, 1990; 2002), personal dispositions (Sargent, Fitch-Hauser, Weaver, 1997), gender (Sargent Weaver, 2003), and cultural context (Keiwitz, Weaver, Brosius, Weiman, 1997). Imhof (2004) posits that, while listening, individuals tend to adjust swiftly to perceived characteristics of the [listening] situation (p. 43) such as the status they hold as compared to their speaking partner. In a study of listeners and speakers with English as a first language (ELI), Harms (1961) found that listeners comprehension was highest when listeners held the same status as the speakers. These findings accord with the results of the Varonis and Gass (1985) study on EL1-ESL and ESL-ESL interlocutor dyads, which demonstrated that meaning negotiations occurred less frequently between EL1-ESL interlocutors t han ESL-ESL. Varonis and Gass (1985) concluded that ESL speakers recognize the inequality of the conversation situation (p. 85) and thus are reluctant to attempt any further negotiation of meaning. In a critique of the cognitively-oriented L2 listening studies that have ignored the social context in which conversation occurs, Carrier (1999) argued that unequal status between ELI and ESL interlocutors hinders negotiations of meanings and thus has an adverse effect on comprehension. Carrier also suggested that status unequals may perceive their relationship as sharing no common base socially, occupationally, and economically (p. 74). In the context of L2 classroom settings, Pica (1992) reported that social relationships between teachers and students give them unequal status as interlocutors, which can hinder L2 comprehension, production and ultimately acquisition (p. 4). In an interesting case study of an intermediate level learners progress in listening comprehension during and after a pre-sessional English for Academic Purposes course, Lynch (1997) reported the discrepancies between performance within the sheltered setting of the language classroom and success in real interaction in the (non-sheltered) academic world. The study, which included evidence from performance (entry and exit listening tests), process (negotiation of meaning in the classroom) and perceptions (of listening difficulties after the course), pointed to the ways in which the listeners fears about being labeled as an ESL student hindered his negotiations of meaning in the classroom and ultimately his performance. When asked to make a conscious effort in applying meaning negotiation strategies (which he had learned in the sheltered language course) in his academic courses, the ESL listener replied, But I am the only foreign student and so I cannot interrupt very much (Lynch, 1997, 394). These results are in line with other work on first language listening, which demonstrate that inter-individ ual differences affect patterns of communication between listeners and speakers (Beatty, Marschal, Rudd, 2001; Imhof, 2004). 2.3.2 Listening as Comprehension Listening has been demonstrated to be one of the essentials of language learning (Rost 2002; Tafaghodtari Vandergrift, 2008; Vandergrift, 2007). Yet, with the diffusion of new technologies, which have particularly changed the ways in which university students spend their time (Emanuel et al., 2008), listening has become one of the most challenging aspects of L2 development for adult learners (e.g. Hasan 2000; Graham, 2003; Kim, 2002; Vandergrift, 2007). In a review of the recent developments in L2 listening research, Vandergrift (2007) rightly points to the significance that listening has in todays reality of L2 learners lives: Language learners want to understand target language (L2) and they want to be able to access the rich variety of aural and visual L2 texts available today via network-based multimedia, such as online audio and video, YouTube, podcasts and blogs (p. 191). Given its central role in the new media age, listening has remained surprisingly underresearched in the field of L2 education, and those studies which seem to address this neglected aspect of language development have been generally concerned with listening as an end-point, rather than an active process of meaning making. Many, for example, reduce listening to finding the right answer to a set of comprehension questions at the end of a passage. This focus, which reflects the nature of commercial and high-stakes tests, ignores the processes involved in any meaning making situation, listening being no exception. This trend has also fallen short of providing a framework for adequately taking account of the variables which affect listening ability (Tafaghodtari Vandergrift, 2008). 2.3.3 L2 Listening: A Cognitive Perspective Drawing on a wide range of disciplines (e.g., cognitive psychology, LI speech education, language pathology and artificial intelligence), current L2 listening theorists recognize that L2 listening draws on multiple sources of information such as linguistic, contextual, and schematic knowledge (e.g., Buck, 2001; Lynch, 1994; Vandergrift, 2006). A consequence of such recognition has been a focus on different textual, cognitive and affective variables such as memory, discourse markers, prior knowledge and anxiety which are believed to affect performance in L2 listening. Based on earlier work by Buck (2001), at least three types of variables are posited to be critical to L2 listening success: linguistic, strategic and learner variables. Linguistic variables entail knowledge of the sound system (phonological), grammar (syntactic), vocabulary (semantic) and contextual influences on interpretation (pragmatic) of the L2 (Flowerdew Miller, 2005). Listeners use L2 phonological knowledge to se gment the stream of sound into meaningful sound units. This includes knowledge about phonemes, stress, intonation, assimilation and elision. Grammatical or syntactic L2 knowledge helps listeners to process or parse the sound stream for meaningful units of language and contributes to comprehension by assigning semantic roles to words (Rost, 2002). L2 semantic knowledge helps listeners assign meaning to word-level units as well as the relationship between those words at the discourse level. L2 pragmatic knowledge helps the listener to infer the speakers intention, particularly if there is any ambiguity in the literal meaning of the utterance. This is closely related to sociolinguistic knowledge (e.g., formal/informal registers, idioms and slang) which listeners use to further interpret the utterance (Buck, 2001). These five elements of linguistic knowledge involved in speech perception are an essential part of any model of listening. Yet, research has shown that listening comprehension is more than speech perception (e.g., Rost, 2004; Schmidt-Rinehart, 1994). Comprehension includes matching what is heard with what is known. According to Rost (2004), the central component in the comprehension process is the activation of schemata in the listeners memory structures to anticipate and monitor,